Culture and Cognition Essay Example for Free

finis and Cognition EssayCulture may be defined as a combination of different traits of a social group. These traits or ways of life can be language, arts, sciences, thoughts, spirituality, social activities, interactions, and many much (Definition, n. d. ). The world has many peoples and thus many cultures, thus each has their own beliefs, traditions, and customs. An another(prenominal) characteristic of a certain culture may be cognition. Because of human diversity in traditions and customs, there is in addition diversity in intelligence.According to Cole, Gay, Glick, and Sharp (as cited in Sternberg, 2004), certain behaviors may be smart in one culture but plainly stupid in another (1971). Culture and watchword According to Robert Sternberg in his expression entitled Culture and Intelligence, intelligence cannot be fully measured, developed, and conceptualized when it is outside the cultural context. This creates an impression that intelligence is a norm and being a devi ant from that norm would mean little intelligence (2004, p. 1). An example given by Sternberg about intelligence tests shows an evidence of his argument.Any intelligence test created in one culture may not be valid in another culture. Sternberg also constructed models in order to determine if the culture has a significant effect on intelligence. On the ternion model, the dimensions of intelligence are the same as with the other models. However, the instruments used are different from the other models. The measurement process was therefore derived from the culture being analyze and not from outside it. As this is done, the psychological meanings of the scores of the assessments change from one culture to another. Culture and CognitionIntelligence is just one of the cognitive characteristics of man. Culture, as well as social systems has a role in developing the peoples system of thought. This is according to Richard Nisbett, Incheol Choi, Laiping Peng, and Ara Norenzayan, when they studied the difference mingled with easterners and westerners in terms of cognitive processes (2001). They stated that east Asians are holistic in their cognitive processes, focusing on an entire field and its causality. On the other hand, westerners such as Americans are analytic because they pay more attention on the object and the categories, making use of rules such as formal logic.The authors of this article suggest that the origin of these differences is traceable to different social systems (p. 291). They were able to conclude that there is still a very great difference between cultures. It is because of the band brought about by these cultures that one process will always be different from another. Furthermore, the norms or the normative standards for though will differ across cultures (p. 306). The figure out of culture has many implications in cognition. This insight may change the very definition of intelligence as related to different social systems.This also has a g reat effect in cognitive assessment since one measuring tool may not be appropriate for all cultures. Although international conversation is already established, this information would give more understanding to people as to how others with different cultures are different to them in terms of learning styles, perception, and other aspects of cognition. It would also change the perception on people who are considered as intellectually inferior since intelligence no longer focuses on a dominant or normative standard set by those perceived as superior.References Definition of Culture, (n. d. ). Roshan Culture Heritage Institute. Retrieved 24 May 2010 from http//www. roshan-institute. org/templates/System/details. asp? id=39783PID =474552. Nisbett, R. E. , Peng, K. , Choi, I. , Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and Systems of Thought Holistic versus Analytic Cognition. Psychological Review. 108(2), pp. 291-310. Sternberg, R. (2004). Culture and Intelligence. American Psychologist. 59(5), pp. 325- 338.

The Psychology in African American Essay Example for Free

The Psychology in African American Essay?Over the function 500 years, our country has established and battled one of the largest socio-tragedies cognize to man racial discrimination. While this pestilent issue has affected mevery ethnic groups, the around customaryly known is the racial discrimination concerning African Americans. By my reasoning, along with many sociologists and psychologists, racism is the root cause of African American course socialization.Race socialization is the possibility of verbal and non-verbal messages being transmitted to specific ethnic groups for the positive or negative development of behaviors, philosophies, morals, and attitudes concerning the significance and importance of racial stratification, intergroup interactions, and personal and group identity. The eraspan in which I will be surveying connects milestones of bunk socialization with many of the most significant moments in United States history.The primary sources I will be usi ng as support for this paper will be several works by W. E. B. Du Bois1 and a book by Dr. Faye Belgrave entitled African American Psychology From Africa to America2. The psychological effect that racism and race socialization has had on African Americans is more than apparent non only through texts written by various sociologists and psychologists, but resembling throughout history. I will focus on a specific fifty-year span when race socialization took effect, racism was socially acceptable and ultimately racism was beleaguerted.It is my purpose in this paper to discuss, examine and determine the psychological effect that racism and race socialization has had on American citizens of African descent between the timespan of 1870 to 1970. To better recognize the psychology behind African American race socialization, the idea of racism has to be understood. Racism is the dogma that all members of each race possess the same characteristics and abilities. Racism came about when the Caucasian race felt superior to other ethnic groups and began categorizing them by their feature racial and ethnic traits.The problem with the categorization is that race and ethnicity are non the same thing3. Racism uses ethnic traits and forces them onto a group of people as their race. Ethnicity is considered to be similar cultural factors like nationality, culture, ancestry and language. While race is comparable physical appearances like skin, eyes, hair and jawbone structure. Combining these two factors and using them against people who appear to be similar is exactly where racism stems4. Another strong belief is that racism plays on the weaknesses and self esteem of the targeted group.In Dr. Faye Belgraves book African American Psychology From Africa to America, she discusses how racism and racial identity are directly influenced by the Western political orientation of egoism. Dr. Belgrave concludes that racism, in regards to anyone of African descent, should not be define d by Western ideologies because they are not of Western descent. This is explained on page 11 of her book5. In understanding what self-esteem is from an African as well as a Western perspective, one must understand the difference between Western and African conceptions of the self.Using a Western definition, self-esteem can be defined as a feeling of liking and regard for ones self. From an Africentric perspective, the personal self is indistinguishable from the self that is derived from membership in the African community (Nobles, 1991). Therefore, ones affiliation to ones group defines ones view of self. The African proverb, I am because we are and we are because I am, characterizes this notion of the self. Thus, the self-esteem of people of African descent may be different from that of Whites, and it also may function differently for African Americans than for Whites.Dr. Belgrave continues her thoughts on self-esteem and the many other factors that contribute to racism in chapt er 9 of her book. It is the belief of many that racism is a part of adult male nature. I, however, believe that to be untrue because it is well known that the terms race and racism are modern inventions originating from the 1500s. Racism has historically been used as a form of oppression to make a particular group feel inferior because of a difference in inherited characteristics. The Civil War6 abolished slavery and soft on(p) a great blow to racism.But racism itself wasnt abolished. Just as racism was created to justify slavery in the colonies, racism as an ideology was modernized and since majority of blacks still remained in the South, this affected the entire race. It now no longer warranted the enslavement of blacks, but it justified second-class status for blacks as inferior individuals. Racism also remained one of the main ways that the upper class used to keep likenessed and white workers divided. After the Civil War, Confederate legislatures commenced the business of d etermining the social status of freedmen.Some laws, known as the Black Codes7, granted to freedmen were legally recognized marriages, the right to own and sell property, and the dexterity to enter into business relationships. However, in most cases the black codes also prohibited African Americans from serving on juries, providing legal testimony and the right to an equal education. The codes also outlawed interracial marriage and created segregated public facilities. The codes prohibited younger African Americans from associating with any white peers. This meant that their questionable education was of a severely lesser quality.Historians believe that one of the main reasons why Southern legislatures shied away from granting educational opportunities for blacks wasnt because of ambiguous racism but because historians saw the African factor8 as the difference between success and failure. This suggested that the whites racist view undermined any motivation for national unification through mass education. known sociologist, W. E. B. Du Bois believed that the overall shortcomings of the black race fell entirely on the fact that blacks were not given the same opportunities as whites and it affected the psyches of each member of the targeted group.In an essay by Du Bois entitled Race Intelligence9 Du Bois discusses the psychological effect of racism on younger African Americans Then came the psychology the children of the public schools were studied and it was discovered that some colored children ranked lower than white children. This gave wide satisfaction even though it was pointed out that the average included most of both races and that considering the educational opportunities and social environment of the races the differences were measurements simply of the ignorance and poverty of the black childs surroundings.10 Du Bois spent majority of his career observing the sociological factors surrounding African Americans and the hindrances in their paths. Du Bo is works do not focus on making African Americans appear as victims but as something to learn and grow from. Du Bois believed racism had no place in this world. When the 1900s began and the Roosevelt Administration11 took over, race socialization was still being transmitted from older generations to younger. In 1903, Du Bois wrote a collection of essays entitled, The Souls of Black Folk12. In this book, Du Bois clearly states that the problem of the twentieth century is the color line. The color line was the segregation between blacks and whites and what many African Americans believed would be the biggest problem for their race. This however, was untrue. What African Americans at this time didnt know was that their daily dose of racism and discrimination was only the surface of their problems. What wasnt seen at the time was the aftermath of what this entire decade of racism would cause for the entire race. The psychological affect of racism and eventual race socialization every f uture generation would face would be equally if not worse then what had already been suffered.W. E. B. Du Bois believed that one of the races biggest struggles was constantly seeing themselves with such little respect and diminishing their self worth because of what the so-called dominant race thought of them. This is also shown in Du Bois The Souls of Black Folk After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of seventh son, innate(p) with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world, a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world.It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at ones self through the eyes of others, of measuring one by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One ever feels his two-ness, an American, a Negro two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings two warring ideal s in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder. The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife, this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to amalgamate his double self into a better and truer self. 13 Du Bois life mission was to make a name not only for himself but also for his race and his country. This is reflected in his diary when he wrote, I therefore take the work that the Unknown lay in my hands and work for the rise of the Negro people, taking for granted that their best development means the best development of the world14 Understanding racism in this way implores the strategy that we use to combat racism socially and the belief that racism has caused race socialization and directly influenced the slow progression, both academic and social, of African American people.Over the last 50 years, psychologists and sociologists alike have tried to study the effects of racism on ethnic groups, especially African Americans, a nd have been uninspiringly successful. I believe that Dr. Faye Belgrave has the answer why. In her book, African American Psychology From Africa to America, she explains why Some of the methodological issues that were historically problematic in studying African Americans remain today. The best methods for studying African American populations may differ from the methods for studying other ethnic groups.For example, the experimental method is the favored method in psychology and has been considered the gold standard for con- ducting research. However, it may not always be the best way to arrive at an understanding of the psychology of African Americans. Other methods such as interviewing and observing may be more appropriate, depending on what is being studied. African psychology considers self-knowledge and intuition to be as important as source of knowing as observable data. Self-knowledge is derived from communicate people about themselves not from observing them under experimen tal conditions.15 Perhaps the reason why weve had such a hard time pinpointing the trustworthy root of racism and thus a cure is because it isnt being studied or treated properly. The concept of racism is treated like any other social problem, not the disease that it is. Racism has developed from its initial form of discrimination into an entire ideology race socialization. Antiracist education is crucial, but not enough. Because it treats racism only as a question of bad notions it does not speak to the core surface conditions that allow the acceptance of racism among large sections of the country.Entirely defeating the circumscribe of racism on large sections of ethnic groups involves three circumstances a larger group retaliation that ties together members of the ethnic group along the color line, attacking the circumstances (lesser pay, treatment, education, etc. ) that allow the attraction of racism to a so-called superior ethnic group and the mindful involvement of antiracis ts to fight racism in all its forms and to win encouragement for interracial class unity.

Karen Newman Othello Criticism

Karen New humanness Othello CriticismIn her 1987 article And wash the Ethiop white womanhood and the monstrous in Othello,1 Karen Newman sets out re-examine prior critical analysis of Shakespeares Othello with the goal to re-read Shakespeare in ways which contest the hegemonic forces, his plays at the same time depose (158). Her argument scrutinizes the the male-dominated Venetian world (152) of the play and the criticism that it has handd against correlating historical perspectives. Her main thesis about the play asserts that the union of Desdemona and Othello represents a sympathetic identification surrounded by femininity and the monstrous which offers a potentially subversive recognition of sexual and racial digression. Employing a feminist approach Newman reveals the racial and sexual urge prejudices inherent both in the play and the critique levelled at it from 1600 by dint of to 1980. In seeking new ways of interpret Othello Newman draws on Derridas poststructuralist ideas to establish parallels between the relationship of gender and race. She contends that Desdemona and Othello are equally marginalized by Venetian society Othellos race and Desdemonas progressive sexuality presenting equivalent risk to the dominant white male society.In confirmatory how these attitudes pervade the play itself, Newman points out that fear of miscegenation functions on two levels. Firstly Shakespeare uses the white mans fear of the union of black man and white women (144) to generate the plot, and secondly through the binary electric resistance of black and white characteristic of the plays discourse. To substantiate she quotes from the play Black ram tups white ewe and O, the more angel she, And you the blacker devil. The stick up line illustrates what Newman terms rhetorical miscegenation. Outlining the frequency with which black and white were used to denote polarization during the Renaissance, (145) she comments on how the emphasis in Othello of Desdemona as the idealisation of seemly female beauty is usually read to emphasise the contrast between these two characters, and declares that contrary to early critics she views Desdemona not as a representative of opposition to blackness and monstrosity, as black is to white, but as identifying with it. Newmans assertion that the play is structured around a cultural aporia, miscegenation is the first cornerstone of her argument.Newmans drawing(a) device is to establish a link between femininity and the racial attitudes inherent in the play. Again she refers to Ridleys criticism, claiming that his choice of example portrays a generalization of women as petty, thereby confirming his gender prejudice. Ridley has displaced the struggle of white against black man onto a cultural femininity. Newman is sympathetic to Stephen Greenblatts (1980) view that Othellos identity is reliant on his deviation of his own origins, an embrace and perpetual reiteration of the norms of another husbandry, but criticises this focus as failing to recognise the other as black and female Othello internalises extraterrestrial being cultural values, but his otherness remains apparent, dividing him from that culture and thereby linking him to the plays other marginality, femininity. Newman claims critical considerations with regard to the symbolic significance of the handkerchief reflect gender prejudices. reign critical preoccupations result in the significance of the handkerchief being limited to a sign of adultery. Contrasting this she terms the handkerchief a snowballing signifier, acquiring analogical and literal meaning as it passes from hand to hand. Newman contests psychoanalytical indicants as problematic since they privilege a male scopic drama casting the women as a failed man once again negating her otherness and limiting female sexuality to fetish. (156)Identifying racial attitudes as inclusive of attitudes towards black sexuality, Newman references popular travel accounts of t he time, outlining African as presented descriptively but excessively mythically (148) concluding always we find a link between blackness and the monstrous, and particularly a monstrous sexuality. These attitudes Newman asserts assimilated into the drama of early ultramodern England. (149) Newman observes the portrayal of Desdemona as voracious and devouring with a greedy ear threatening to masculine perceptions of femininity. Her desire is presented in terms of an aural/oral libidinal causing Othello anxiety. Newman sees this anxiety as having a duel source the monstrous difference it invokes against his adopted culture, and that it allies her imagined sexual appetite with his own. Othello and Iago are linked in representing white male sexuality in the play. Simultaneously and paradoxically Othello also represents the threat to it. Newmans investigation of historical criticisms surrounding femininity as represented by Desdemona, uncovers several ironies. Rymer and Cinthio in a cautionary moral link Desdemonas social disobedience to her sexual duplicity. Othellos punishment of Desdemona and simultaneously confirms the cultural prejudice which labels him a monster. In addition Iagos dramatic construction which leads Othello to see Desdemona as a whore, demonstrates how theatrical representation can provide false influence.Newmans undoubtedly subscribes to a feminist school of criticism, seeking to expose the nature of gender inequality and opposing the inherent male hegemony represented within the play. In addition, by her own account, her reading is also political in that it exposes the ideological discourses which organise the text. She comments that poststructuralist approaches highlight that even highly formalist readings are political, inscribed in the discourses both of the period in which the persist was produced and of those in which it is consumed. Newman references Derridas work on racism and in addition to employing deconstructionist discourse his influence can be seen in Newmans design. Recognizing the binary opposition denoted by the polarization of Othellos blackness and Desdemonas whiteness, Newman develops this to assimilate the implied opposition of monstrosity or miscegenation represented by Othello and femininity represented by Desdemona. Deconstructive discourse incorporates the notion that difference exists both between signified and signifier, and at the same time that the signified defers meaning to the signifier. The role of the literary critic is seen as seeking a slippage in the text, thereby denoting duplicity and revealing how the internal linguistic and thematic rules are inexact. Newman finds this critical slippage in both Rymers Short view of Tragedy (1693) and again in Ridleys criticism 250yrs later, to be the lapse from blackness to femininity. (155)Newmans approach offers new and valuable insights through its address of past criticisms, detailing not only how they relate to the ideology of the time they represent, but also illustrating how criticism in itself can be read to demonstrate new ideas and ways of reading the play. Her analysis however, places its emphasis on the Desdemonas interracial relationship with Othello and how her disobedience to her father and her choice of black man threaten the prevalent white male hegemony. Newman does not address other characters marginalised through class distinctions and gender. One such relationship is that between aristocratic Cassio and the courtesan Bianca. The secret nature of their liaison is both essential to the plot but also preserves Cassios social standing. Cassio treats Bianca with little respect scorning her foolishness in loving him. Cassio, Iago and Brabantio all share a mutual sexist prejudice in a similar way to the racist disdain which shapes their worldview. Othello can be seen to be outside this racial bigotry but Newman does not address the question of whether he accepts the central stereotyped perception of women . Newmans outline of historical womens roles focuses solely on a westernized version of society and does not address the way in which women were historically regarded within non-westernized cultures.Hinging on the underpinning social apprehension with regard to miscegenation, Newmans argument takes it lead from Bennetts notion that the position a text holds within relation to the ideology at its origin is not necessary an indication of the position which it may subsequently come to hold in different historical and political contexts. Some critics however claim Newman is anachronistic, applying modern concepts of racism historically. Shakespearian audiences would have understood race in a totally different way to contemporary audiences. It would then follow that Newmans application of contemporary ideas with regard to other cultural constructs such as gender would be equally out of place. Acknowledging that Shakespeare was certainly subject to the racist, sexist, and colonialist disc ourses of his time, Newman declares that by making Othello a black man and through Desdemonas love for him, Shakespeare stands in a contestory relation to the hegemonic ideologies of race and gender in early modern England. Newmans argument is exact and engages the play against historical points of view, addressing feminist issues and at the same time employing poststructuralist thinking to achieve her goal of establishing a link between femininity and race. Newman sees such strategies of reading as a social responsible in that they illuminate artificial enactment of works which may falsely represent those marginalised groups standing outside culture and simultaneously within it. This representation she sees as being obscured by the immediacy of dramatic performance. Her analysis of Othello is a demonstration of how seamlessly racial attitudes in early face drama where transmitted to viewpoints surrounding gender and sexuality, illustrating how mutually constitutive race, gender, and sexuality can be.

Corporate Governance Disclosures in Emerging Capital Markets

Corpo ordinate Governance Disclosureticuloendothelial system in Emerging Capital MarketsTHE CASE OF GHANACHAPTER 11.1 INTRODUCTION incarnate organization has dominated the insurance agenda in developed market economies since the mid 1990s. The spate of unified failures and massive government bailouts that vex characterised the current global recession has led to an passel in the c every(prenominal) told for tighter regulation of chief city markets and more stringent bodied memorial tablet. What has become clear from the current global capital markets meltdown is that, as capital markets develop, so too does the complexity of transactions and organisational structures, and the span of inter-dependencies among the various players in the market which extend beyond the boundaries of nations and continents.It is imperative for the stability of the global economy that in that respect is adequate and effective regulation of the various capital markets and that the managers of maj or companies be held accountable for complying with these regulations and adhering to the principles of good unified arrangement. In position for corporal manager to be held accountable for their conformity with regulations and good organization, they must make relevant divine revelations in their companies yearly reports.Corporate Governance and Emerging Capital MarketsThe recent international financial s raftdals have generated increased interest in corporate governance as a message of mitigating financial problems in developing economies (Tsamenyi et al. 2007, Reed 2002, Ahunwan 2002). These problems include derelict and illiquid stock markets, economic uncertainties, weak legal rigs and investor protection, and frequent government intervention. Developing economies also suffer from poor corporate performance and high concentration of all in alliance ownership (Tsamenyi et al. 2007, Ahunwan 2002). They usually suffer from state ownership of companies, weak legal and judiciary systems, weak institutions, limited human resources capabilities, and closed/family companies (Mensah 2002, Young et al. 2008). Reed (2002) storied that, globalization, international trade, and international investiture practices call for the development of corporate governance in developing nations.Corporate governance is mechanism for ensuring corporate management acts in the best interest of a comp some(prenominal)s stakeholders (John Senbet, 1998). If capital markets in developing economies much(prenominal) as gold coast be to become fully established and grow, effective corporate governance regulations need to be developed and implemented. Such regulatory structures should not only be adequate to protect the interests of shareholders besides also to assist in boosting the confidence of prospective investors and early(a) stakeholders in corporate activities (Cadbury, 1992).Emerging Capital Markets (ECMs) are an integral part of the global capital market. Accord ing to the International pay Corporation (IFC, 1996), EMCs can be viewed as any market in a developing economy that has the potential for development (IFC, 1996). Such markets compete for investment funds with well developed capital markets and in that respectfore need to put in place appropriate measures to attract business activities. The adoption of effective corporate governance is one such measure. Gompers et al. (2003) assert that, good corporate governance increases come with valuations and boosts the bottom line. Along similar lines, Claessens et al. (2002) maintain that sound corporate governance frameworks benefit companies through and through increased access to financing, lower cost of capital, better performance and more favourable treatment of all stakeholders.Corporate transparency and full-disclosure of tuition are core attributes of the corporate governance mechanism (OECD, 1999) and are regarded as an extremely important factor in the feel of corporate governa nce. Further, Beeks and Brown (2006)contend that firms with more effective corporate governance make more informative disclosures. Although corporate governance systems differ across countries, with the development of rules of Best Practice around the world, there is gradual convergence of corporate governance practices toward global standards (Hopt 1997). gold coast is an example of an emerging economy which is increasingly embracing the concept of good corporate governance and requiring companies to report on their corporate governance practices.Attempts being made in gold coast to promote effective corporate governance include the formation of the prove of Directors in 2001 and the development of National Accounting Standards. Additionally, the gold coast Securities and Ex replace Commission (GSEC) has developed a Corporate Governance Code of Best Practice against which companies can benchmark their practices. Other regulatory requirements which govern corporate conduct include furnish in the Companies Code 1963 (Act 179), the Securities fabrication Law 1993 (PNDCL 333) and the Membership and Listing Regulations of the Ghana Stock Exchange.Notwithstanding all of the above measures which are designed to secure good corporate governance by public listed companies in Ghana, the common take aim of compliance with the requirements is, and has always been, low. A study by Tsamenyi et al. (2007), which investigated corporate governance disclosures by applying a disclosure index to the 2006 annual reports of 22 listed companies in Ghana, comprise that the tip and quality of corporate governance disclosures were minimal.Many studies have been examined on corporate governance disclosures based on the examination of the content and scope of annual reports nurture by establishing corporate disclosure indexes (see Meek et al. 1995, Coy and Dixon, 2003).This study is concerned with the information disclosed mostly in the annual reports. Information in the annual report consists of qualitative and quantitative data. The quantitative data is both financial and non-financial. Moreover, many annual reports contain illustrations, diagrams and graphical presentations.1.2 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES sideline from the above discussion, the overall aim of this study is to make recommendations designed to improve the extent and quality of corporate governance disclosures by public listed companies in Ghana.In order to achieve this aim the re count has the following objectivesto determine the current corporate governance disclosure requirements of listed companies in Ghanato compare Ghanaian disclosure requirements with those applying to UK listed companiesto examine the corporate governance disclosures made by a Ghanaian listed companies in their 2008 annual reportsto identify the differences (if any) in the corporate governance disclosures made by the listed companies in Ghana studied and the corporate governance disclosure requirementsto ascertain the reasons for the failure by listed companies in Ghana to fully comply with the corporate governance disclosure requirementsto make recommendations on how the quantity and quality of corporate governance disclosures by listed companies in Ghana might be improved.1.3 METHODOLOGYIn order to achieve the query objectives the following methods have been used.Literature review Relevant articles in academic and professional journals have been reviewed in order to establish the extent to which corporate governance disclosure requirements exist and are adhered to in various ECMs. Keywords such as corporate governance, disclosures, ECMs, and Ghana input into databases such as Emerald, JSTOR, SSRN, and Google to search for relevant articles.Document studyStatutory and regulatory documents have been examined to ascertain the existing corporate governance disclosure requirements in Ghana. In amplification, the annual reports of a try out of 25 listed companies in Ghana for the year 2008 ha ve been studied to determine the extent and quality of their corporate governance disclosures.Disclosure IndexA corporate governance disclosure index has been and applied to the 2008 annual reports of 25 listed companies in Ghana. The index is has been constructed to include the key corporate governance requirements that apply to listed companies in Ghana.Semi-structured interviews Six semi-structured interviews were conducted in order to ascertain the reasons for differences in the corporate governance disclosures made by, and required of, listed companies in Ghana. The interviewees were two finance executives of listed companies, two senior inspect partners from the Big Four auditing firms and one representative from each of the Ghana Stock Exchange and the GSEC.1.4 IMPORTANCE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDYPrior studies such as those of Tsamenyi, et al 2007 and ROSC 2005, which have examined aspects of corporate governance in ECMs and, in particular, Ghana have revealed that corpor ate governance as a policy and regulatory issue is gaining ground but the level of corporate governance disclosure is low.This study, by establishing the current extent (and quality) of corporate governance disclosures in Ghana, identifying deviations from the corporate governance disclosure requirements, and making recommendations on how corporate governance disclosure practices may be improved, will help to bring about improvements in the corporate governance disclosures by listed companies in GhanaHowever, the study has a number of limitations. These include the followingThe study has focused only on a limited sample of 25 out of the 36 listed companies on the GSE. As a consequence the result may not be representative of all listed companies (or indeed, other companies) in Ghana.The study will be based on one years corporate governance disclosures and these may not be representative of corporate governance disclosures made in other years. Research which incorporates a longitudina l study may be necessary to demonstrate the development of corporate governance disclosures in Ghana.The semi-structured interviews were conducted with a broken sample of interviewees and the opinions expressed may be influenced by their personal ideologies and the extent of their experience with listed companies in Ghana.1.5 ORGANISATION OF THIS RESEARCH REPORTThis research report has six (6) chapters as follows,Chapter 1 Introduction In this chapter the background to the study is explained, and its aims and objectives are specified. The research methods used for the study are outlined and consideration is also given to the contributions and limitations of the research project.Chapter 2 corporate governance requirements in Ghana This chapter deliver the goodss background information on the corporate environment in Ghana and go downs out the corporate governance requirements.Chapter 3 Literature review This chapter provides a definition of corporate governance and examines the im portance of, and the principles downstairspinning, corporate governance. It also reviews prior research which has examined corporate governance disclosures and more particularly, those which have investigated corporate governance disclosure in ECMs.Chapter 4 Methodology.This chapter explain the development and application of the of disclosure index used to examine the quantity and quality of corporate governance disclosures in the 2008 annual reports of a sample of listed companies in Ghana. It also describes the methodology adopted for the semi-structured interviews conducted with six interviewees from selected institutions in Ghana. In addition it explains the means by which the data have been analysed and reported.Chapter 5 Research findings. The results of the analysis of selected companies annual reports and the semi-structured interviews are reported and examined in the light of the exact literature.Chapter 6 Conclusions and Recommendations.This chapter provides a picture su mmary of the research project and its findings. Conclusions are drawn from the research findings and recommendations made on ways in which corporate governance disclosures by listed companies in Ghana might be improved.CHAPTER 2CORPORATE GOVERNANCE REQUIREMENTS IN GHANA2.1 INTRODUCTIONThis chapter provides background information on Ghana, its political and economic environment and its corporate profile. It also explains the legal and regulatory framework and the corporate governance requirements which apply to listed companies in Ghana.2.2 COUNTRY PROFILEGhana is a Sub-Saharan African rude with a total land area of about 238,538 square kilometres/92,100 square miles and a population in 2007, of 23.5 million (Bureau of African Affairs, 2008). Ghanas population is concentrated along the coast in the principal cities (Bureau of African Affairs, 2008). Ethnically, Ghana is divided into smaller groups, each of which has a different language or dialect, however, the official language is English, which is a legacy of British colonial rule (Sarpong, 1999).2.3 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT IN GHANAFor more than century, Ghana was under(a) British colonial rule. She reach independence on 6th March 1957 and became a republic in July 1960. After independence, Ghana alternated between civilian and military rule. After a series of coup detats (Sarpong, 1999), in January 1993, the country returned to democratic rule under the National Democratic Congress (NDC). After 8 years (in 2001) power switched to the New fast(a) Party (NPP) but in January 2009, following the election, the NPP handed over power to the NDC.The economy of Ghana is dominated by agriculture, mining and forestry agriculture. Agriculture accounts for about 37.5% of gross domestic product (GOG, 2008), and the largest foreign exchange earners for the country are cocoa, gold and coffee (BBC, 2009). In 2007, the countrys GDP was $15.2 billion. As at the jump quarter of March 2009, the inflation rate of Ghana was 20.53 % (GOG, 2009). Ghana is a member of United Nations (UN), the British commonwealth, African Union (AU), International Monetary Fund, African Development intrust (ADB), the World Bank Group and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).2.4 GHANA STOCK EXCHANGE AND LISTED COMPANIES OWNERSHIPSTRUCTUREThe Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) was incorporated in July 1989. It was recognised as an authorized Stock Exchange under the Stock Exchange Act of 1971 (Act 384) in October 1990, and trading on the floor of the Exchange commenced in November the same year. In April 1994, it became a public company limited by guarantee (GSE 2009). The exchange is regulated by the GSE Membership Regulations L.I. 1510, Listing Regulations L.I 1509 and Trading and elimination Regulations, and is organized as a body corporate under the supervision of the Securities Exchange Commission that falls under the Ministry of Finance.The Exchange is governed by a council which includes theatr ical from licensed dealing members, listed companies, banks, insurance companies, and the general public. The functions of the Council include pr offspringing fraud and malpractice, maintaining good order among members, regulating stock market business and granting listings. The GSE currently has 36 listed companies with a market capitalization as at 31 March 2009, of GH18,041.20m, equivalent to US$13,073.33m (GSE 2009). The manufacturing and banking sectors currently dominate the Exchange, while other listed companies fall into the insurance, mining, transport, food, publication, pharmaceuticals and petroleum sectors. some of the listed companies on the GSE are Ghanaian ( ternary being listed family- goled companies) but there are five multinationals. Until 2006, individual foreign investors, who were first allowed to participate on the Exchange in 1993, were not permitted, without approval, to hold more than 10% of a listed companys shares and the total foreign investments in any company could not exceed 74% of the companys shares. These limits were removed by the Foreign Exchange Act of 2006 (Act 723) and non-resident investors can now invest in the market without limit or prior exchange control approval. Dividend income is taxed at 8%, while Capital gains on listed securities are exempt from tax until November 2010 (GES 2009).2.5 CORPORATE GOVERNANCE REQUIREMENTS IN GHANAOver the recent years, notions of corporate governance has been gaining root in Ghana in response to initiatives by some stakeholders such as the Ghana demonstrate of Directors (IoD-Ghana), Private Enterprise Foundation (PEF), State Enterprises Commission, the Institute of Economic Affairs, and the Ghana Centre for Democratic Development (Ocran 2001 Mensah et. al 2002). The IoD-Ghana strives to improve corporate governance practices and strengthen companies boards of directors. It has, for example, hosted international and national conferences, run competitions to increase knowingness of corporate governance issues and developed manuals and procedures to help implement good corporate governance practices (Mensah et. al 2002).Notwithstanding the above developments, evening gown corporate governance structures and institutions are not widespread although a number of rightfulnesss provide for governance structures for companies in Ghana. These laws include The Ghana Companies Code 1963 (Act 179), The Securities Industry Law, 1993 (PNDCL 333) as amended by the Securities Industry (Amendment) Act 2000, (Act 590), and the Listing Regulations of the Ghana Stock Exchange, 1990 (L.I. 1509) (K-Coleman and Biekpe 2008)2.5 .1 LEGAL REQUIREMENTSThe Companies Code 1963 (Act 179), which is based substantially on the UKs Companies Act 1948, provides for governance mechanisms of all companies incorporated in Ghana (NEPAD 2005). It provides governance of ministration such as requirements to have directors, awardment and removal of directors, hire of directors, directors reports, and audited financial statements. It also provides for various mechanisms for shareholders to enforce their rights, such as rights to annual general meeting, equal treatments of shareholders.The Securities Industry Law 1993 (PNDCL 333), as amended by the Securities Industry (Amendment) Act 2000 (Act 590) and Exchange Commission Regulations (2003), provides for, among other things, the governance mechanism of all stock exchanges, investment advisors, securities dealers, issues concerning accounts and audits and collective investment schemes licensed under the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC 2003). The Securities and Exchange Commission, overseeing the disclosure of material information to the investing public by companies, including securities listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange.Regulatory role models for Boards of DirectorsThe Companies Code describes directors as person who is appointed to direct and administer the business of the company, and stipulates that each company mu st appoint a minimum of two directors for a company. However, the Code allows companies to fix the maximum number of directors in their Regulations. Section 181 of the Companies Code provides that directors are to be appointed through the individual votes of shareholders at a general meeting of the company. However, this frequently means that the directors are approved by the controlling shareholders. There is no requirement under the Companies Code for the appointment of independent directors but this is required under the Securities and Exchange Commissions Code of Best Practices on Corporate Governance (SEC Code) for the GSE.In the exercise of their duties, the directors are required to act at all times in what they believe to be the best interests of the company as a whole so as to preserve its assets, further its business, promote the purposes for which it was formed, and to do so in such manner as a faithful, diligent, careful, and ordinarily skilled director would act in the circumstances.The Code makes provision for the appointment of executive directors by allowing directors to hold any other power or place of profit in the company, other than office of auditor. The directors remuneration is to be reasonably related to the value of services provided and is to and shall be determined from time to time by ordinary resolutions of the companyThe Companies Code enjoins directors to, at least once annually (at intervals of not more than 15 months), to prepare and send to each shareholder the directors report, which show the state of the companys affairs with any change during the financial year in the nature of the business of the company. The report is approved by the board of directors and signed on behave of the two directors.Regulatory Framework for Shareholder RightsThe Companies Code 1963, the Securities Industry Law 1993 and the Regulations of the Ghana Stock Exchange provide the primary regulatory framework for the establishment and operations of co mpanies that issue in public traded securities.The Companies Code gives shareholders opportunities to participate and vote in general shareholder meetings or exercising rights through proxy for the appointment or removal of directors, access to incidentally and transparent company information concerning the date, location and agenda of general meetings and the right to petition against unfair prejudice.The Securities Industry Law and the GSE Listing Regulations ensure that the market for corporate control of listed companies functions in an efficient and transparent manner. It provides for example the organizing of shareholders meetings, proxy solicitation and voting by shareholders, disclosure of equity ownership, and allowable actions that shareholders may undertake against directors, including law suits, the removal of directors, and penalties for breaches of their fiduciary duty.Regulatory Framework for answerability and AuditUnder the Companies Code a companys, directors are responsible for keeping proper books of account and for the conceptualization of financial statements which provides a true and fair view of the company. Auditors are to be appointed by an ordinary resolution of shareholders, except that the directors may appoint the first auditor of the company and fill any casual vacancy in the office of an auditor.Auditors are expected to employ diligence, objectivity and independence in the flicker of their duties and functions. To ensure the auditors independence, the Code prohibits an officer of the company or any associated companies, partners of, or employees of an officer of the company from holding office as auditor. However, the Code permits auditors, in addition to their statutory duties to shareholders as auditors, to provide other services to the company such as, advising on accounting, costing taxation, rising of finance and other matters. This provides a ground for a conflict of interest which may impair the auditors independent.An auditor may be removed from office by an ordinary resolution of shareholders at an annual general meeting after 35 days notice and is allowed to speak to this at this meeting in response to his intended removal. No provisions exist under the Companies Code limiting the term of office of auditors.The GSE Listing Regulations recognize the need for audit sub- perpetration which should be composed of non-executive directors. The GSE Listing Regulations also prescribe the audit delegacys duties such as making recommendations to the board concerning the appointment and remuneration of external auditors reviewing the auditors evaluation of the system of internal control and accounting.The Companies Code, the Securities Industry Law and the GSE Listing Regulations requires all companies to provide shareholders with audited financial statements prepared in accordance with the Ghana National Accounting Standards issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants (Ghana) at close of their fina ncial year to its shareholders.2.5.2 leaning REQUIREMENTS AND GOVERNANCE GUIDANCE BY CODE OF BEST PRACTICESIn December 2003, the Ghana Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued corporate governance principles for listed companies entitledCode of Best Practices on Corporate Governance. This code is based on the OECD Principles of Corporate Governance (SEC 2003). Consistent with the United Kingdom, the code is not mandatory. While these provisions are not binding, the SEC encourages compliance with the Code and requires listed companies to include a statement in their annual report disclosing the extent of compliance with these guidelines. The Code set out principles for the equitable treatment of all shareholders, disclosure and transparency and responsibility of the board of directors.As require by best practice.There should be formal and transparent procedures for appointments to the board.Also there should be separation between the roles of CEO and Board Chairman responsibi lities unless there are specific reasons militating against such separation. In the case where two offices are combined the Code required companies to explain to shareholders and the board must enact procedures that ensure the independence of the board as a whole and their respective responsibilities should be defined.There should be a balance of executive and nonexecutive directors with the complement of independent non-executive directors being at least a third of the total membership of the board and in any event, not less than two.2.6 ANALYSIS OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE DISCLOSURES IN GHANAIN COMPARISON WITH THE UNITED KINGDOMThe provisions of the code are set in Table 1. Further, so that the provisions applying in Ghana may be evaluated in the light of well established Code of Corporate Governance, the provisions of the UKs Combine Code of Governance (Financial Reporting Council, 2008) are also presented.B.2 ProceduresThere should be a formal and transparent procedure for developi ng policy on executive remuneration. Members of the committee should exclude themselves from deliberations concerning their own remuneration.There should be a formal and transparent procedure for developing policy on executive remuneration and for fixing the remuneration packages of individual directors. No director should be involved in deciding his or her own remunerationC.2 Internal ControlThe board is responsible for ensuring that appropriate systems of internal control are in place for monitoring risk, adherence to financial governance measures and compliance with the law.The board should maintain a sound system of internal control to safeguard shareholders investment and the companys assetsGHANAUKA. DirectorsA.1 The BoardEvery company should be headed by an effective board, which is collectively responsible for the success of the companyA.2 Chairman and chieftain ExecutiveThere should ideally be a separation between the role of Board Chairman and CEO unless there are specific reasons which work against such separation.There should be a separation between the roles of CEO and Board ChairmanA.3 Board Balance and IndependenceThe board should include a balance of executive and non-executive directors with the complement of independent non-executive directors being at least one third of the total membership of the board and in any event not less than two.The board should include a balance of executive and non-executive directors (and in particular independent non-executive directors) such that no individual or small group of individuals can dominate the boards decision takingA.4 Appointments of BoardAppointments to the board should be formal and transparent selection process should be based on merit. There is no nomination committeeThere should be a formal, rigorous and transparent procedure for the appointment of new directors to the board. There should be a nomination committee which should lead the process for board appointments and make recommendations to the boardA.5 Information and Personal DevelopmentThe board should have unrestricted access to all company information, records and documents. All directors enjoy the right to retain outside professional experts for counselThe board should be supplied in a timely manner with information in a form and of a quality appropriate to enable it to discharge its duties. All directors should receive induction on joining the board and should on a regular basis update and refresh their skills and knowledgeA.6 Performance EvaluationThe board should annual review their own performance and that of the various committeesThe board should undertake a formal and rigorous annual evaluation of its own performance and that of its committees and individual directors.A.7 Re- ElectionAll directors should submit themselves for re-election at regular intervals and at least once in every three yearsof its committees and individual directors. A.7 Re- Election All directors should submit themselves for re-ele ction at regular intervals and at least once in every three years All directors should be submitted for re-election at regular intervals, subject to continued satisfactory performanceB. Directors RemunerationB.1 Directors RemunerationThe levels of remuneration in corporate bodies should be competitive, should focus on retaining management and be linked to corporate and individual performance. Every corporate body should establish a remuneration committee. The remuneration committee should comprise of a majority of non-executive directors. Does not give number of directorsLevels of remuneration should be sufficient to attract, retain and motivate directors of the quality required to run the company successfully, but a company should avoid paying more than is necessary for this purpose. A significant proportion of executive directors remuneration should be structured so as to link rewards to corporate and individual performance. The board should establish a remuneration committee of a t least three independent non executive directors.C. Accountability and AuditC.1 Financial ReportingThe board is responsible for ensuring that a balanced and understandable assessment is given of the financial and operating results of the corporate body in the financial statements.The board should present a balanced and understandable assessment of the companys position and prospectsC.3 Audit Committee and AuditorsThe board should establish an audit committee. The audit committee should comprise at least three directors, the majority of whom should be non-executiveThe board should establish an audit committee of at least three independent non-executive directorsD. family with shareholdersD.1 Dialogue with institutional shareholdersThere should be a dialogue with shareholders based on the mutual understanding of objectives. The board as a whole has res

Communicating With The Mentally Challenged Education Essay

Communicating With The Mentally Challenged Education EssayThe purpose is to make people aw are that although you try to be politically discipline when communicating with the noeticly challenged, mild through server, there is a definite communication channel to consumption. My purpose is, since I do foster condole with and sacrifice been given a child that is severely challenged, was to learn as much as possible as how the discipline habits of the child and the best or diametric ways to communicate to the child knowing the child will always be challenged. For the purpose of this paper I will refer to the child as he (although it could well be a she) and since Sonic the hedge hog seems to be a favorite between both sexes, the name of the child, in coif to protect the childs identity will be referred to as Sonic.Thesis statementAll children must mature and the responsibility to develop all children falls upon apiece of us to raise the child up and yet when it comes to the menta lly challenged child there must be different channels of communication between the heavy(a) and that child. These conduits al petty(a)s the adult to take into account the in rangeigence of the child, and reach the child on their level, even if it means going down to their level. The adult talk must confer the childs level of understanding.If to a greater extent people do non take a more active interest in the life of the mentally retarded thus we will not bring forth any place to go except in an institutional reenforcement and that is not fair because we are Gods creatures. Anonymous doorCommunicating with the mentally challenged is not only a challenge to the mentally challenged, simply the adult as well. Each situation must be mute before continuing in educating the child to come a productive fracture of society, if that is possible. Looking at the definition of mentally challenged and to what degree the child is challenged, from perimeter cases to highly severe, and a t rue treatment plan can be develop to mold the child to usefulness even if that usefulness is nothing more then breakting hotshotself to the bathroom. The mentally challenge will grow and mature the question is how much? For mentally challenged kids and adults, some things can never be learned. (Emma, 2007) specify Mentally ChallengedMentally challenged primary depends on the I.Q. of the child along with one or more of the many psychological tests available to measure the intelligence or mental functioning of the child. Therefore, when the mental old age is divided by the chronological age and multiplied by a hundred, what you get is the Intelligence Quotient or the I.Q. (De la Jara, 2007) An I.Q. above 140 is the sign of a genius. An average to really intelligent child would stool of 100 120 and a dull child would score 80 90. Those children classified below 85 are classified even further. An IQ of 84-70 is considered borderline mentally challenged, while those 55-69 are mild cases and consider educable. 40-54 are Moderate cases but trainable, 25-39 are severely deficient and any IQ below 24 is classified as highly severe.Mental age refers to an age at a normal level of performance on an intelligence test, and it became a popular way of referring to mental level as measured by the Binet Simon scale of 1908. The Binet Simon scale identified the academic skills typical of specific age groups. In 1912, William Stern used chronological age as a denominator to be divided into mental age, resulting in an intelligence quotient. In 1916, Lewis Terman multiplied this intelligence quotient by 100 (to eliminate the decimal places) and called the result an IQ score. Termans formula of mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100 became popularized as the formula for calculating a persons IQ. Adult intelligence does not flip from year to year so the cin one casept of mental age is less meaningful when discussing adults. Contemporary IQ tests use cumu lative indexes to determine make headway rather than the calculation of IQ scores based upon Termans formula. A contemporary equivalent of mental age is the Standard Age Score of the Stanford-Binet IQ test, which was formulated in 1987.Overview of mentally challengedAlthough there is no hard evidence, one of the strongest factors of the mental deficiency is hereditary. Besides this there are a number of surroundingsal factors that rear to mental arrest, malnutrition or infection during pregnancy or even an excessive intake of drugs and RH incompatibility whatever the cause, if the handicap is very severe, the entire learning of the child gets affected physical, social and wound up along with mental. Some of these children cannot perform the simplest of tasks that we all seem to take for granted. Simple things like walking straight, eating or toilet training. A great amount of patience and tolerance is required to supervise and handle such a child.Mental retardation occurs in 2 .5-3% of the habitual population. About 6-7.5 million mentally retarded individuals live in the United States alone. Mental retardation begins in childhood or adolescence before the age of 18. In most cases, it persists throughout adulthood. Mentally retarded children reach developmental milestones such as walking and talking much later than the general population. Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the softly retarded category and they can often acquire academic skills up to the 6th grade level, become self-sufficient, and in some cases live independently, with community and social support.Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of mental retardation. Aggression, self-in-jury, and mood disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The severity of the symptoms and the age at which they first appear depend on the cause. Children who are mentally retarded reach developmental milestones significantly later than expected, i f at all. If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders, it is often apparent from infancy. If retardation is caused by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were once easy whitethorn suddenly become difficult or impossible to master.The most noticeable emotional characteristics children with mental retardation often recognize that they have difficulties with tasks that others find easy. This realization can lead to frustration, anger and depression. Some children with mental retardation may suffer from anxiety. These children may act out due to these emotions. They may have trouble expressing their feelings and may show their feelings in ways such as refusing to eat or sleeping too much. Sonic, the foster child living with me, will be calm and act like a five year old one moment, and then if you ask something of sonic, major mood change to the point of aggression.How to understand the mentally challengedAnyone who has toiled with th e mentally challenged people knows, many will tell you exactly what is on their mind. When something does not go Sonics way, he will tell you and if you persist, he will tell you she will kill you, and hates you. Understanding that this is typical in a mentally challenged you let it roll off you and fair(a) apprehension close enough to make sure that sonic does not hurt herself. The mentally challenged know their likes and dislikes, what is going on in their lives, and even some liking of what they want their future to be.When the mentally challenged are treated as subhuman, as children, or as a menace to society, it follows that we become the ones to decide what is best for them, and what mixture of life they should lead, we instead should remind ourselves that they are Gods creatures. They need to be treated as serious human beings with important things to communicate. (McLean, Brady, Mclean, Behrens, 1999) Understanding their language is likely to be much reveal than the ab ility to express it. Speech maybe very poorly articulated and difficult to understandOne of the critical aspects in forming a communication is one that emphasizes skill actualization, where teachers give the mentally challenged many opportunities to use and hit the roof on their already developed skills. Skill actualization goals are represented in the individual education plan (IEP) such as the child will use whatever skill is already developed and continue to expand to the point where the child will reach the next goal. In Sonics case, the IEP has included counting skills up to 20, understanding the valued of money, and doing simple life skills.Steps in Creating CommunicationThe first step to communicating with a mentally challenged person is to understand the way they communicate. Mirror there patterns keeping in mind get on their level but do not be on their level. Match the way they see the world, not as a child but as a learning style. Most are visual learns where they learn in pictures, using word like see and look. Visual learners prefer to use diagrams, pictures, study notes, handouts and movies to see the information they are learning.Sometimes the mentally challenged are audio learns where they may not even look at you but countersink more stock into the spoken word and the voice inflection. This is a fine line where the teacher must be very calm and sure of each word other wise you could miscommunication and all the building process is for naught. The mentally challenged needs to be heard and we must allow them to hear us.The final learning style is kinesthetic learners also called tactile learners need to feel it to learn best. The more the learning experience involves pathetic, touching, tasting and feeling, the more it will be jailed by this type of learner. Projects and experiments also work well with this group. Young children learn thins way by reaching out to something and feeling it, touching it, and breaking it. (OK I had to put that in)The real art is to combine learning styles to fit the child. Sonic uses Visual about 80% and verbal about 15% and kinesthetic the remain 5%. If you show her something, she will remember and get the message quickly, by adding the verbal component he will recall the instruction the next day, demonstrating, grown verbal instruction then transferring ownership of a task, builds his self-confidence. There are small tasks she can do the give him pride in doing well, such as showing which day on the med chart we are on and then picking the proper cup to take.The second step is to incorporate the communication skills in both the education setting as well as the extra curricula activities. Opportunities exist almost constancy or as it is called teachable moments. The hardest part as a teacher is to keep on top of the moments one can take advantage of and then take advantage of them. At home with sonic, it becomes a one on one the moment Sonic comes home from school until bedtime and in turn allows many more recognizable and controlled setting.The third step is to allay conversation and keep them engaged as much as possible. The issue here must be keeping it simple. In studies, (McLean, Brady, Mclean, Behrens, 1999) simple yes or no question got the most response from the mentally challenged. Asking completed questions creates confusion and frustration, and can actually cause the person to regress rather then moving forward. Using the KISS (keep it simple) method more ground can be make rather creating an antagonistic climate.How to communicate with the Mentally Challenged1. Maintain a calm, low volume. Speaking louder does not make you more understandable.2. When determining age-appropriateness of your words, remember that you must know the mental age of your listener, not his or her calendar age. Remember, they are just mentally challenged, not a person with a limited vocabulary, such as a five-year-old.3. Do not cover or hide your emit because listeners will want to watch you as you pronounce your words. This helps them figure out what you are saying in many cases.4. Do not mimic how the mentally challenged speaker pronounces words in a misguided presumption that he or she will understand if you speak like he or she does. This does not make you easier to understand. It will confuse your listener and may give the wrong impression about your sensitivity to his or her handicap.5. Avoid tendning words together. For example, do not say, Do-ya wanna eat-a pizza? One of the biggest challenges for listeners knows where one word ends and the next one begins. Give them a small pause between words if they seem to be struggling.6. When possible, opt for simple words instead of ones that are complex. The more basic a word is, the better the chance is that it will be understood. Big is a better choice than enormous, for example. Make is a better choice than manufacture.7. Avoid speech complexity, which is beyond your listeners comprehension level. U se simple subject-verb-object statements with the significantly challenged. More mildly challenged people may be able to handle more forms that are complex.8. Look them in the eye. It lets them know that you care about what you are saying. Although they may rarely make eye contact with you, behave as if you really are interested in what they are talking about.9. Treat people with disabilities with respect. Do not treat them as inferior. Remember that the person you are talking to has feelings and is not stupid. Rather, he/she is challenged with something you will never understand the ability to understand, communicate, or decipher.10. Patience is the key.11. Be assured that you must listen and observe the person you are speaking to. In most cases, communicating with a person with a disability is very much like learning how to understand an accent. Be ready to adjust your communication style in a respectful way when necessary.12. Treat them as close as possible as you would a norm al person, except use age-appropriate words. Otherwise, they may sense something is up.13. Smile to show them you are enjoying their company.14. Be aware of the tone of your voice. Is it patronizing? Are you speaking with the tone you would use for a child? Adjust accordingly. (Challenges constructiond by, 2010)ConclusionThe mentally challenged can become part of the community by understanding how they speak and process information. The earlier the problem is detected the better it is for the child. Sometimes the public tries to hide the fact until it becomes apparent to all, and by then it is too late to get timely help. There are plenty of child guidance centers and special schools around to provide the perfect environment to aid in the development of the child. If these facilities are not utilized, a mentally deficient child will definitely develop severe social and emotional problems as well.We all should try to accept the fact that their child is mentally challenged and help h im or her grow to the full potential that he or she is unfastened of. Some people try for a miraculous cure and expend a lot of time and energy in search of a augur elixir. heretofore though such an attitude is understandable, it does not show any results. That time will be better spent in admitting the child to a special school or sheltered institution where he can get professional help.Communicating with people who have mental deficiency is a skill that you can hone over time with continuous practice. There are some tips, which will allow you to communicate in a better way with them. Words are just the tip of the communication iceberg. When conversing with a person, we send myriad signals by the way we stand the expression on our face and the tone of our voice. These form levels of communication that bypass words. When talking to anyone, remember to relax and consciously use body language in a positive manner. Even if the verbal communication is misunderstood, the body language can convey concern and interest. The person will receive the message that we are interested in them and care about their feelings.Watch what you say to the child, be very careful of the environment they are in, and make sure people treat the child as one of us, not a special child. Each Tuesday we play softball for the church and each time Sonic gets up a homerun is produced. It is not the home run that matters to us, although Sonic would tell you other wise, but the encouragement of being one of the gang that allows her to participate in an activity someone with a mentally challenged hold would never experience.

Volcanic Eruptions and Global Climate Change Essay -- Geology Global W

Volcanic Eruptions and Global Climate ChangeAbstractThere has been much debate in recent decades over how much volcanic eruptions digest to global climate change, the destruction of the ozone layer, and global warming. This electronic term paper deals with various sides of this debate. There will be a specific focus on the great nineteenth century eruptions of Tambora and Krakatoa.Table of ContentsIntroductionThe Effects of Volcanoes on the nation Systems in GeneralThe 18-- Eruption of Tambora and its Effects on the Earth SystemsThe 1883 Eruption of Krakatoa and its Effects on the Earth SystemsWhy Some Scientists are Saying that Volcanoes Do Not Have a Great Effect on Global ChangeConclusionReferencesIntroductionSince the beginning of time, volcanoes have been erupting on Earth. Millions of years ago, they created the continents, and the gases they produced condensed in the atmosphere to rain and form the oceans. Today, volcanic eruptions are several(prenominal) of the most feared natural disasters on the face of our planet. Their destructive forces are powerful enough to wipe out entire cities and kill countless numbers of slew and wildlife. There are, however, other effects of volcanic eruptions that we dont hear about on the news. One eruption actually has the power to decrease the temperature all over the public and create a dust cloud that could linger as long as five years. Magma also contains gases that make a small but material contribution to ozone depletion. The gargantuan eruptions of Tambora and Krakatoa in the nineteenth century, which will soon be discussed, are great examples of how volcanic eruptions affect global climate change.The Effects of Volcanoes on the Earth S... .... Available from http//netsurf.geo.mtu.edu/ekc/climate_volc2.html.Mattox, Steve. Volcanic Gases. (1998). sack site. Available from http//volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/Gases/index.html.NASA Facts. Volcanoes and Global Climate Change. (1998). Web site. Available from http//eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/NASA_FACTS/volcanoes/volcano.html.Bunce, Nigel and Jim Hunt. The Greatest Explosion. (1996). Web site. Available from http//www.physics.uoguelph.ca/summer/scor/articles/scor43.htm.Volcano World. Images of Volcanoes. (1996). Web site. Available from http//volcano.und.nodak.edu.Environmental Protection Agency Stratospheric Protection Division. Myth Volcanoes and Oceans are Causing Ozone Depletion. (1997). Web site. Available from http//biodec.wustl.edu/EnvSci/Ozone/stratosphere/myths/volcano.html.

Rhetorical Visions in the Film, American History X Essay -- Films Movi

Rhetorical deals in the Film, American History XHate is baggage. Lifes too short to be pissed off all the time. This is a quote from the film American History X. This film sends out a powerful message about hate groups such as skinheads and Neo-Nazis. The vision of this movie is to make others certain of the complex life of a skinhead. Through different symbolism we see how society views this group. We also are made aware of the continuous cycle of violence that continues to exist even after a powerful leader changes his view.American History X is important to analyze because it shows how angiotensin converting enzyme mans rhetorical vision changes through life experiences. This film depicts the lifestyles of skinheads and how one person with a vision leads others to worship everything he is and everything he believes in. How can a leader with so much rhetorical vision and passion about one thing change over a cessation of time? The importance of this film is to observe how a character develops. It also shows a social and psychological issue that has been around for many years and how it however takes one person to change how a group thinks. I bequeath attempt to answer the research question by using Bormanns emblematic Convergence Theory and Fantasy Theme. The goal of this paper is to provide insight in the shared worldview of a group of rhetors (Bormann as cited in Foss 121). I will also show repeated phrases that lead to different rhetorical visions. I will explain how fantasy types emerge and also how symbolism reflects the rhetorical visions. The for the first time part of my paper will include two different literary reviews that have been done on fantasy themes. One of them specifically deals with hate groups and how th... ...spectives (1999) Vol. 1 Issue 3 p19, 4p. Academic Premier. InfoTrac. Scarborough-Phillips Lib., Austin, TX. 20 Feb. 2004. Benoit, William L., et al. A Fantasy Theme Analysis of Political Cartoons on the Clinton-Lewinsky-Starr Affair. Critical Studies in Media Communication.Vol.18, No.4, December 2001, 377-394.Billingsley, Robert D. Hard on the job(p) youngsters or Nazi thugs? Federal ProbationSep. 93, Vol 57, Issue 3. p88, 2p. Psychology and Behavioral SciencesCollection. InfoTrac. Scarborough-Phillips Lib., Austin, TX 20 Feb. 2004. Duffy, Margaret E. Web of Hate A Fantasy Theme Analysis of the RhetoricalVision of Hate Groups On Line. Journal of Communication Inquiry 273(July 2003) 291-312.Foss, Sonja K. Rhetorical Criticism Exploration & Practice. (2nd Edition). IllinoisHeights Waveland Press. 1989.